On June 13, 2025, military actions were initiated against Iran's nuclear and related infrastructure. The primary nuclear facility confirmed to have been impacted was Iran's main uranium enrichment site at Natanz, where reports indicated damage to underground structures. While initial assessments by Iran's Atomic Energy Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reported no immediate increase in nuclear radiation, the inherent risks associated with such attacks are profound and unacceptable.

Military aggression targeting nuclear facilities carries severe and unpredictable risks, including the potential for widespread radioactive leaks, explosions, and long-term contamination. The IAEA has unequivocally stated that any attack on nuclear facilities is "unacceptable" and could lead to "grave consequences for the people of Iran, the region, and beyond." These consequences stem from the potential release of highly toxic and corrosive Uranium Hexafluoride (UF6) gas from enrichment sites, the risk of plutonium and tritium release from heavy water reactors, and the large-scale dispersal of dangerous fission products like Cesium-137 and Iodine-131 from power plants or spent fuel pools.

The long-term humanitarian and environmental implications are devastating. Civilian populations face increased risks of acute radiation sickness, various cancers (including thyroid cancer, particularly in children), genetic alterations, cardiovascular diseases, and severe psychological trauma. Vast areas could be rendered uninhabitable for hundreds to thousands of years, disrupting agriculture, leading to widespread food shortages, and necessitating mass displacement. Historical disasters like Hiroshima and Chernobyl serve as stark reminders that the impacts of nuclear incidents are often "beyond the capacity of any humanitarian organization to address effectively." The continued presence of nuclear facilities in conflict-prone regions, regardless of their stated purpose, represents an enduring threat to global security and human well-being.

The June 13, 2025 Military Action: Context and Immediate Impact

Military Operations and Targets

On June 13, 2025, a significant military offensive was launched targeting sites across Iran. While details of the full scope of the operation remain contested, reports indicated a large-scale engagement. The international community, including the UN Secretary-General, immediately called for maximum restraint to prevent a wider conflict, underscoring the severity of the situation.

Confirmed Nuclear Facilities Impacted

The primary nuclear target confirmed to have been impacted was Iran's main uranium enrichment facility at Natanz, officially known as Shahid Ahmadi Roshan Nuclear Facilities. Reports from the scene indicated black smoke rising from the site following the strikes. Specific details regarding the damage, including "multi-story enrichment hall with centrifuges, electrical rooms, and additional supporting infrastructure," were reported, suggesting a deliberate attempt to degrade enrichment capabilities.

Following these events, Iran's Atomic Energy Organization confirmed that parts of the Natanz nuclear enrichment facility sustained damage but maintained that "no nuclear radiation or chemical contamination has occurred." The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) also confirmed the strike on Natanz and stated that it was "closely monitoring radiation levels" at the site. Subsequent IAEA reports indicated that "no increase in radiation levels was observed at the Natanz site."

Escalation and Calls for Restraint

The immediate aftermath saw an escalation of tensions, with Iran responding with military actions and issuing threats of severe retaliation. International reactions were characterized by widespread condemnation of the attacks and urgent calls for de-escalation from all parties involved. This period of heightened tension highlights the inherent instability and unpredictable nature of military engagements involving sensitive nuclear sites. The potential for miscalculation and unintended consequences leading to broader regional conflict is immense, threatening global peace and security.

Iran's Nuclear Infrastructure: Functions, Locations, and Civilian Proximity

Iran’s nuclear program comprises a network of facilities with diverse functions, strategically located across the country. Understanding the nature of these facilities, their specific roles, and, crucially, their proximity to civilian populations is essential for assessing the catastrophic humanitarian risk posed by military strikes. The hardening and dispersion of these sites, while intended to enhance resilience against military intervention, also mean that any successful attack would require significant force, inherently escalating the potential for humanitarian disaster.

A. Uranium Enrichment Facilities

Natanz (Shahid Ahmadi Roshan Nuclear Facilities)

Natanz is Iran's primary uranium enrichment plant, housing thousands of centrifuges used to enrich uranium. A significant portion of the facility is constructed underground, providing enhanced protection. Natanz has been the subject of previous sabotage attacks, underscoring its critical role and the persistent efforts to disrupt it. Geographically, Natanz is situated approximately 220 kilometers (135 miles) southeast of Tehran, a sprawling metropolis with an estimated population of approximately 9.8 million in the city proper and 16.8 million in its metropolitan area as of 2025. A significant radiological release from Natanz could have devastating consequences for the capital and surrounding areas, depending on meteorological conditions.

Fordow Fuel Enrichment Plant (FFEP)

Fordow serves as Iran's second major uranium enrichment site. Despite being smaller than Natanz, it is exceptionally fortified, buried deep within a mountain and protected by anti-aircraft batteries, which makes it highly resistant to aerial attacks. The facility hosts centrifuge cascades, including advanced models, and has been used for enriching uranium to higher levels. Fordow is located approximately 100 kilometers (60 miles) southwest of Tehran and is situated near the holy city of Qom. More precisely, it is 32 kilometers (20 miles) northeast of Qom, near Fordow village. Qom has a substantial estimated population of 1,530,000 people. The close proximity of Fordow to a major population center like Qom, coupled with its capacity for high-level enrichment, significantly amplifies the humanitarian risk of any strike, potentially leading to a contained but severe release of hazardous materials in a densely populated region.

B. Heavy Water Reactor

Arak Heavy Water Reactor (IR-40)

The Arak reactor, designated as IR-40, was designed for heavy water production, a process that can yield plutonium, a material with military applications. Although its core was filled with concrete under international agreements to mitigate proliferation concerns, its long-term integrity and the potential for future repurposing remain a concern. This facility produces tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The Arak reactor is located approximately 250 kilometers (155 miles) southwest of Tehran and is near the city of Arak, which has a metro area population estimated at 590,000 in 2025. Any military action against this facility, regardless of its stated purpose, could result in the release of radioactive materials with severe consequences for the substantial nearby civilian population.

C. Nuclear Power Plant

Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant

The Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant is Iran's sole operational civilian nuclear power facility, primarily for electricity generation. It is fueled by uranium produced in Russia and is under IAEA monitoring. Iran is expanding the site with two additional reactors under construction. Bushehr is located on the Persian Gulf coast, approximately 17 kilometers (11 miles) southeast of the city of Bushehr, which has an estimated population of 223,504. A strike on an operational nuclear power plant, especially one with a large civilian population nearby, carries the highest risk of a catastrophic radiological release, potentially impacting hundreds of thousands of people and vast environmental areas with long-term contamination.

D. Research and Conversion Facilities

Isfahan Nuclear Technology Center (INTC)

The Isfahan Nuclear Technology Center (INTC) is Iran's largest nuclear research complex. It includes a uranium conversion facility (UCF) responsible for processing raw uranium into uranium hexafluoride (UF6) and other forms. The INTC also houses three research reactors and various laboratories. The INTC is located in Isfahan, approximately 350 kilometers (215 miles) southeast of Tehran. Isfahan is a major urban center with an estimated population of about 2 million people, and its metro area population reached 2,328,000 in 2025. The presence of a uranium conversion facility, which handles highly hazardous UF6, and research reactors within or near a large metropolitan area like Isfahan significantly elevates the risk of civilian exposure in the event of a strike.

Tehran Research Reactor (TRR)

The Tehran Research Reactor (TRR) is located at the headquarters of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. Its primary function is the production of medical radioisotopes and general nuclear research. The TRR is situated directly within a residential region of Tehran, a city with an immense estimated population of approximately 9.8 million in the city and 16.8 million in the metropolitan area. The TRR's location presents an exceptionally high risk to civilian populations. Any release of radioactive materials from this facility could have devastating and immediate consequences for millions of residents.

E. Uranium Mines

Saghand and Gchine Mines

Iran operates uranium mines, including Saghand and Gchine, which provide raw material for its nuclear program. The Gchine mine, Iran's only operating mining and milling facility, is situated near the port of Bandar Abbas, a city with a metro area population estimated at 691,000 in 2025. The Saghand mine is located approximately 180-185 kilometers (112-115 miles) northeast of Yazd, which has a metro area population estimated at 609,000 in 2025. While a strike on a mine might not have the immediate catastrophic release potential of a reactor, it could still disperse radioactive dust and toxic chemicals, posing long-term health risks to nearby communities and contaminating agricultural land.

The undeniable fact is that many of Iran's nuclear facilities—including the Tehran Research Reactor, Arak, Fordow, Isfahan, Natanz, Bushehr, and the Saghand and Gchine mines—are situated alarmingly close to significant population centers. This dense co-location drastically amplifies the humanitarian risk of any military strike. Any substantial radiological release would directly impact hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of civilians, leading to immediate casualties, mass displacement, and protracted health crises. This geographical reality transforms the theoretical "nuclear nightmare" into a very real and immediate threat to human lives.

The Nuclear Nightmare: Dangers and Consequences for Civilian Populations

The military targeting of nuclear facilities, regardless of their intended purpose, introduces an unacceptable level of risk to civilian populations. The potential for a "nuclear nightmare" stemming from such actions is not merely theoretical but is grounded in the inherent dangers of radioactive and toxic materials, the proximity of facilities to population centers, and the unpredictable nature of conflict. The IAEA Director General has issued a stark warning, emphasizing that "nuclear facilities must never be attacked," as such actions could lead to "grave consequences for the people of Iran, the region, and beyond."

A. Immediate Radiological and Chemical Hazards of a Strike

A military strike on any nuclear facility carries the immediate dangers of "radioactive leaks, explosions and long-term contamination." The specific hazards vary depending on the type of facility targeted and the materials contained within.

Specific to Enrichment Facilities (Natanz, Fordow): Uranium enrichment facilities, such as Natanz and Fordow, handle Uranium Hexafluoride (UF6), a compound that is highly volatile, toxic, corrosive, and radioactive. In the event of a breach, UF6 rapidly reacts with moisture in the air to produce hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas and uranyl fluoride (UO2F2). HF gas is extremely corrosive, capable of causing severe irritation and chemical burns to the skin and eyes, and significant damage to the respiratory tract, including "pulmonary irritation, corrosion, or edema" and potential "renal injury." Symptoms, particularly severe burns, may not manifest for up to 24 hours, complicating immediate medical response. Inhalation of UF6 and its reaction products can be fatal. Short-term exposure can induce a wide array of severe symptoms, potentially leading to death. While the uranium in UF6 is only weakly radioactive due to the long half-life of U-238, exposure to any radioactive substance increases the risk of developing cancer over time. Direct damage to centrifuges and associated infrastructure, as reported at Natanz, directly risks the release of these hazardous materials into the environment.

Specific to Heavy Water Reactors (Arak): Heavy water reactors, such as the one at Arak, are designed for heavy water production, a process that can yield plutonium as a byproduct, a material with military applications. Although the Arak reactor's core was filled with concrete under the JCPOA to prevent plutonium production, its long-term integrity and the potential for future repurposing remain a concern. These reactors also produce tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. Tritium, primarily found as "tritiated water," can enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, or absorption through the skin. While tritium emits very low-energy radiation and is not penetrating externally, once absorbed, it causes "long-term internal radiation." It can directly or indirectly induce various biological effects, including "DNA strand breaks, micronucleus formation, cell necrosis or apoptosis, chromosomal aberration," and other negative impacts on human health. Prolonged exposure to low levels of tritium can reduce cell adhesion, angiogenic capacity, and increase cellular permeability and senescence. Furthermore, it has been clinically demonstrated to cause "cancer, genetic mutations, or developmental defects in unborn children" in laboratory animals, and can significantly elevate the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Specific to Nuclear Power Plants (Bushehr): Striking an operational nuclear power plant, such as Bushehr, carries the risk of a "meltdown of the reactor core." While modern reactors are typically shielded by thick concrete and steel containment structures, severe damage could still lead to a "release of radioactivity to the environment." A major concern is the release of fission products, particularly from densely packed spent fuel pools, where the release of Cesium-137 could be "much larger than from reactor accidents" like Chernobyl or Fukushima. Key isotopes that would be released include Cesium-137 (with a half-life of 30 years) and Iodine-131 (with a half-life of 8 days). Cesium-137 poses a "significant long-term danger" due to its persistence in the environment and high water solubility, leading to internal contamination and a substantially increased risk of cancer. Iodine-131, on the other hand, concentrates in the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid cancer, particularly in children who are more susceptible. A severe strike could potentially release "tens of millions of curies of Cesium-137," with estimates suggesting that 2,000 square kilometers could be rendered uninhabitable per million curies released. Such a catastrophic event could necessitate the evacuation of "hundreds of thousands of Iranians."

Specific to Research Reactors (Tehran, Isfahan): Research reactors, including the Tehran Research Reactor and those at Isfahan, primarily produce medical radioisotopes. While these reactors are designed so that they "cannot explode" like a nuclear weapon due to their fuel composition and design, a strike could still "cause radioactive contamination and a health risk to people in the area." A release of radioactive elements such as Iodine, Strontium, and Cesium could contaminate wide areas. Radiation exposure, even at lower doses, can cause immediate damage to a person's body, and at very high doses, can lead to "radiation sickness and death." Long-term health effects from lower doses include cardiovascular disease, cataracts, and various forms of cancer.

Specific to Uranium Mines (Saghand, Gchine): Uranium mines and processing facilities, such as Saghand and Gchine, deal with uranium, which is a toxic metal and weakly radioactive. Strikes on these sites could lead to the release of depleted uranium (DU) or natural uranium dust into the atmosphere. Inhalation of DU aerosols can contaminate wide areas. Exposure to uranium can impair the normal functioning of vital organs including the kidney, brain, liver, and heart. Studies indicate the possibility of "leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure" to uranium.

B. Long-Term Health Impacts on Civilians

Beyond immediate casualties, the long-term health consequences for civilians exposed to radiation or chemical contamination from a nuclear facility strike are severe and protracted.

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) and Cutaneous Radiation Injury (CRI): High-dose, whole-body exposure to radiation can lead to Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS), characterized by severe symptoms potentially culminating in death within days or weeks. Direct contact with radioactive material can cause Cutaneous Radiation Injury (CRI), resulting in severe skin lesions and burns.

Increased Cancer Risks: Individuals who receive high doses of radiation face a significantly elevated risk of developing various cancers later in life, including multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, thyroid cancer, and lung cancer. Thyroid cancer, in particular, is strongly linked to exposure to radioisotopes like Iodine-131, with women and children having a higher risk. Even low-dose, chronic exposures over extended periods may contribute to cancer development.

Genetic Alterations and Reproductive Health: Ionizing radiation has the potential to induce genetic alterations, which can manifest as cancer, organ dysfunction, and immune and metabolic disorders. There are also concerns regarding the impacts on reproductive health and potential second-generation effects on the children of those exposed. Prenatal radiation exposure is particularly concerning, as it can lead to developmental damage in unborn babies.

Cardiovascular and Other Chronic Diseases: Beyond cancer, radiation exposure is strongly associated with other chronic health disorders, including heart disease, particularly ischemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disorders, even at relatively low dose rates. Other chronic conditions include blood disorders, cataracts, and neurological disorders.

Mental Health Impacts: Any emergency, especially one involving radiation or nuclear incidents, can cause profound emotional and psychological distress. Survivors may experience long-lasting trauma, anxiety, and other mental health challenges, which can be exacerbated by displacement and the loss of community and livelihood.

C. Long-Term Environmental and Societal Consequences

The long-term environmental and societal consequences of a nuclear facility strike extend far beyond immediate health impacts, potentially reshaping regional ecosystems and human societies for generations.

Widespread Contamination and Uninhabitable Zones: Radioactive contamination from a major release can persist for hundreds to thousands of years, rendering wide regions uninhabitable. This long-term contamination disrupts the natural functions of the biosphere, leading to the death, disease, and extinction of local plant and animal species. The Chernobyl accident, for example, contaminated 150,000 square kilometers in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.

Impact on Agriculture and Food Security: The release of radioactive materials can severely contaminate agricultural lands, water sources, and livestock. This contamination would necessitate strict food controls and could lead to widespread crop failures and a severe reduction in food supply. In a worst-case scenario, the release of soot and ash into the atmosphere from large-scale fires could block sunlight, causing drastic temperature drops, leading to a "nuclear winter" and "nuclear famine" scenario, with potential starvation for billions globally.

Infrastructure Destruction and Overwhelmed Services: The immediate blast damage from a strike would cause massive destruction of infrastructure, buildings, and homes. Communication and transportation systems would be crippled, and essential services like hospitals and fire-fighting equipment would be reduced to rubble in zones of complete destruction. The sheer number of injured would vastly overwhelm any remaining medical facilities.

Mass Displacement and Social Disruption: A large-scale radiological event would inevitably lead to mass displacement as populations flee contaminated areas. Historical events like Chernobyl and Fukushima forced the evacuation of over 100,000 people each. The long-term psychological trauma, loss of livelihoods, and breakdown of social order in affected regions would be immense.

Economic and Geopolitical Instability: The economic fallout from such a disaster would be catastrophic, impacting not only the directly affected country but also regional and international financial systems. The geopolitical implications would be profound, potentially leading to further escalation of conflict and a heightened risk of nuclear proliferation.

Emergency Preparedness and Response Capacity

The capacity of any nation, including Iran, to effectively respond to a large-scale nuclear incident, particularly one resulting from a military strike, is a critical and often underestimated concern. The IAEA Director General, Rafael Grossi, has emphasized that "any military action that jeopardises the safety and security of nuclear facilities risks grave consequences for the people of Iran, the region, and beyond." This statement highlights the immense challenge posed to emergency response capabilities in conflict scenarios.

Following the June 13, 2025 events, Iranian authorities confirmed impact at the Natanz enrichment site but stated that "no nuclear radiation or chemical contamination has occurred." The IAEA also reported no increase in radiation levels at Natanz. While this suggests that initial damage may have been contained, it does not provide a comprehensive picture of Iran's overall emergency response and civil defense plans in the event of a more severe radiological release.

Effective preparedness for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) incidents requires structured training programs for emergency staff, regular drills, and comprehensive emergency response plans. Studies on CBRN preparedness in Iran have noted challenges, including limited training courses for pre-hospital personnel and a lack of experience which could hinder initial response efforts in a disaster scenario. The absence of comprehensive and publicly detailed strategic plans for such emergencies raises serious concerns about the ability to mitigate civilian harm effectively.

The rapid accumulation of highly enriched uranium by Iran has been a serious concern for the IAEA, adding complexity to verification efforts. This, coupled with the potential for military attacks, underscores the critical need for robust and transparent emergency preparedness and response mechanisms. However, the available information suggests that while some plans may exist, significant challenges in their implementation and the training of personnel could exacerbate the humanitarian impact of any future nuclear incident.

conclusion

The military actions targeting Iran's nuclear facilities on June 13, 2025, particularly the confirmed impact on the Natanz uranium enrichment facility, represent a dangerous escalation with severe implications for nuclear safety and civilian populations. While initial reports indicated no immediate radiological contamination, the inherent and unacceptable dangers of attacking nuclear infrastructure remain paramount.

Iran's nuclear facilities, some heavily fortified and others located within densely populated urban areas, present an acute and direct threat to human life in the event of a strike. The release of highly toxic and radioactive materials such as Uranium Hexafluoride, hydrogen fluoride, plutonium, tritium, Cesium-137, and Iodine-131 could lead to immediate fatalities, acute radiation sickness, and long-term health crises including various cancers, genetic alterations, and cardiovascular diseases. Women and children are particularly vulnerable to these devastating effects.

The environmental consequences would be equally catastrophic, rendering vast areas uninhabitable for generations, destroying agricultural land, and leading to widespread food shortages and mass displacement. The scale of such a disaster would quickly overwhelm any existing humanitarian response capabilities, as history has tragically demonstrated.

From an anti-nuclear watchdog standpoint, these events underscore a fundamental truth: any military action targeting nuclear facilities carries an inherent and uncontrollable risk of a "nuclear nightmare" for civilian populations, with long-term impacts extending across generations and potentially destabilizing the broader region. The international community's urgent calls for de-escalation are not merely diplomatic rhetoric but a recognition of the profound and unacceptable dangers associated with the militarization of nuclear issues. The only truly safe path forward is to ensure that nuclear facilities are never subjected to military attack, and that all efforts are focused on peaceful diplomatic solutions to reduce nuclear proliferation risks.